The love means a feeling of affection and attachment to a being or thing, that those who feel pushed to find a close , which can be physical, spiritual or even imaginary, with the object of that love, and adopt a behavior specific (more or less rational ) accordingly.
As a concept generally refers love mostly a deep sense of affection towards a person. However, even this specific design of love includes a wide range of different feelings, from desire of passionate love and romance , to close the tender without sexuality of family love or the platonic love , and spiritual devotion of religious love . Love in its various forms acts as a major factor in social relations and is central to the psychology human, making it also one of the most common themes in the art .
The French word love can refer to a wide variety of feelings, and behavior of states, ranging from pleasure usually associated with an object or activity (“I love chocolate,” “I like to dance”) a deep or intense attraction to one or more persons (“I love my husband,” “I love my children”). This diversity of jobs and meanings of the word makes it difficult to define a united and universal, even comparing it to other states emotional .
The allegory of love is usually the heart .
The French word love , as the verb to love him is relative, covers a wide variety of meanings distinct though related. Thus, the French uses the same verb to express what other languages ​​express by different verbs: ‘j’ like my girlfriend ‘and’ j ‘ like sweets’ for example (whereas in English , we say respectively ” to love “and” to like “and Spanish ” querer “or” amar “and” gustar “). There is also such a variety for the word love , for instance in the plurality of Greek words designating the love . Cultural differences in the conception of love thus redoubled the difficulty of defining them universal . The noun love nonetheless an extension narrower than the word love : we rarely talk about, for example, of “love” of sweets, although they say the “love”. The meaning of the word love , which can also express the friendship , or simply an affection for something that is a source of pleasure , is broader than the word love .
Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of debate, we can clarify several aspects of this concept based on what love is not. As he expresses a strong, positive feeling, it is opposed to the commonly hatred , even to the indifference , the neutrality or apathy . As a feeling, more spiritual than physical, it is often opposed to sex or sexual desire . As a special relationship and nature of romantic with someone, it is often distinguished from the friendship , although friendship can be defined as a form of love, and some definitions of love apply to a close friendship 1 .
Love means a strong attachment to someone emotionally or something. He returns often, in common usage, to human relationships , and more specifically what a person feels for another, love can still be impersonal : it is possible to say that Denver Divorce Lawyer someone feels love for a country (eg his own country: see patriotism ), for the kind , or for a principle or an ideal , if she places a high value and it feels very attached. Similarly, we can feel love for an object material , an animal or an activity , if it maintains links or strong emotional ties with these objects (or that s’ identifies them). When love becomes an object of exclusive or excessive or perverse , we talk about fetishism or idolatry .
The love between people, meanwhile, is feeling generally worse than just feeling friendly or affectionate. However, it may take different forms and degrees of intensity, from simple tenderness (when we say “love” children, for example) to desire the most ardent (among lovers passionate for example). Thus, the love between members of a family is not the same as between friends or within a couple of lovers. When it is felt with great intensity and power that he has a strong erotic (or sexual attraction ), we speak of love ” passion “or” passionate love “, often using the image of the flame or burning to describe the effect it exerts on the senses and the mind . When that passion causes such close identification with a person that tends to unify the two lovers, one speaks of love ” fusion “.
The appearance of more or less sudden passionate love is described in everyday language as a divestiture (“fall in love,” ” thunderbolt “), resulting in the person who is experiencing the behavior intended to attract the loved and to obtain the reciprocation of that love, who will speak if necessary by actions and gestures of lovers – among whom the caresses , the kisses and sex , the latter being identified in several languages ​​by the expression: ” make love. ” These practices and actions are partly cultural and can be – just as the study of forbidden love-related – an approach anthropological or sociological Plastic Storage Bins .
In addition to cultural differences in practices related to love, the ideas and conceptions of love have also changed greatly at different times. The platonic love , the courtly love and romantic love are so distinct and designs appeared at specific times of history . There are also a number of psychological disorders related to love, and studied by psychology , as erotomania or narcissism . Some forms of love are also seen as perversions or deviations (see paraphilia ), such as pedophilia (sexual attraction to children) and bestiality (sexual attraction to animals). Such love can be studied both by psychology than by the social sciences .
Because of the complex and elusive of love, discourse on love is often reduced to stereotypes , which are found in a number of sayings about love, since the sentence of the poet Virgil ” Love conquers all ( Omnia Vincit Amor ), “to the famous” Love is blind . ” The philosopher Leibniz gave in this definition: “To love is to rejoice in the happiness of others” 2 .
In history, philosophy and religion (and the theology related to it) have thought much about the phenomenon in love, constant source of inspiration for the visual arts , literary and musical . The psychology in the last century, renewed thinking on the subject. In recent years, the sciences such as biology , the neurology and neurobiology , but also the zoology and anthropology , have improved our understanding of the nature and function of love.
History
Ancient Greece
Erastus and eromene, detail of an Attic cup fifth century BC. BC ( Louvre ).
Main article: Eros (philosophy) .
This term of love , covers four distinct feelings of ancient Greece : the eros , the philia , the agape and storge .
The philia approximates friendship as understood today is a strong mutual respect between two people of similar social status. It could not exist at the time between two persons of the same sex, due to gender inequality. This is an extension of friendship . The Eros refers to sexual attraction, the desire . In Platonic thought , it is sometimes seen as a negative passions that produced the Epithumia (or “appetite”), but also as a “divine madness” that is “the cause of the greatest blessings for men” 3 . However he could mingle with the philia through pederasty 4 , which tied a lover Mature (“erastes”) at a young love (“eromene”).
The agape love of neighbor is a unique relationship that is closer today of altruism . It is characterized by its spontaneity, it’s not a deliberate act or a form of politeness but a real empathy for others they are unknown or intimate. In the Christian tradition of the Church Fathers , the word is likened to the concept of charity , although it is closer to a material relationship established with people in pain. The agape is not of the original connotation of moral responsibility before a divine .
The storge described familial love, like love, affection of a parent for his child.
American society of the 1960s
According to the magazine Planet , relationships with the United States , according to their type, were expressed in 1960 by three words: ” love , “the feeling of love,” sex “, sexual intercourse without prejudice feelings, present or not, and ” fun “, the simple exchange of intersex relations from simple flirtation to further relations, but without commitment or intention on the one hand dui attorney chicago or the other.
Philosophical approach
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“Living on love and fresh water” is an ideal dreamed of by some. Neither war nor toil; only love. ” Peace and Love ” ( “Peace and Love” ). Pleasure of non-violence , seduction, eroticism and sexual entertainment.
Love is a theme with depth in philosophy. For example, to answer this question: “the man he is the source of love that lives or love is a natural concept that applies to humans? ” The philosopher Baruch Spinoza , who has worked extensively on the issue, especially in his Ethics , defined as: “Love is nothing but joy, accompanied by the idea of an external cause; (…) We also auto transport see that he who loves necessarily endeavors to make this and keep the thing he loves 5 ​​. ”
In fact, the speech inaugurating the possible link between philosophy and love is the banquet of Plato . Ironically, the speech opens and closes simultaneously the theme of love “human” has been replaced by love “divine” by Christianity. chiropractic marketing Indeed, it is perhaps more appropriate to speak of denigration rather than replacement as Western philosophical discourse has reduced the theme of love between men and Chrome Wire Shelving women was a matter of bodily pleasure, sin, lust, etc. . A fortiori, if strangely, it seems that it is through literature that the theme of love has been treated by philosophers. Think of Rousseau , Goethe , Voltaire , etc.. On this last point, that is to say about moving the location-based querying of the Greek agape to the literature, we refer to Derrida.
The philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer argues that love is an illusion of the Will (the essence of everything he says) that seeks to perpetuate itself through reproduction. The xx th century is not far behind. Furthermore Sartre , it is mainly Emmanuel Levinas who called out the philosophical world by developing the theme of otherness: Time and the other , Totality and Infinity , etc.. The latter even brought ethics to the rank of first philosophy, real upheaval in Western egocentrism.
Psychological approach
Elegy and lack of love
painting utopian William Bouguereau .
Psyche
On the psychic level, the psychoanalytic view that early relationships parents – children are crucial in the mind of a person and his perception of love. Relations mother – son or father – daughter , especially, are particularly striking. The parent-child relationships are usually unbalanced: the parent meets the needs of the child. It is said in this case that the love of the child and the parent captative oblative.
Growing up the child learn to rebalance the relationship. This learning can fail at any given time, and keep an adult immaturity if it does not take consciousness and perception of love more or less injured. Relations among them his parents would also be important in the construction of the idea of ​​love.
Filling a missing
Love can be seen primarily as a search for a missing, when the altruistic notion has not developed. The love given to a person or an object would be born by what he brings to an individual or is likely free auto insurance quotes to bring. “Love” is none other than unconsciously to confess his own helplessness to autonomy for a particular need at any given time. Need to love or need to feel loved none other than a selfish need, an expectation of the person who could fill the ‘gaps’ or intangible property that it would not be able to satisfy itself. For example, in the West, the need for a child would need a companion or a companion by our side, who need fuels the sense of love or need love for the person expected to conceive this child .
Psychic reality of the need for more child would reside in a need for safety apparently motivated by the good of the child: the feed and support around age adult . But this attitude, apparently generous, would underpin actually a hidden desire among some parents to be together into old age. In such situations, “love” or say “I’m in love (is)” would be an unconscious way of saying “I hope the person for whom I have feelings of love will bring me things that I ‘ expect it. ” As it is felt at the loved denver martial arts presence of things expected of him, the feeling persists, but if the loved one loses or does not have a part of what the other expects, the feeling of love fades or turns off. When this feeling fades, it is not uncommon to hear: “Our two paths separated” because “my needs have changed,” “we have not followed the same route”, etc.. At that time, the person feels “at risk” may be prone to anxiety attacks. The person may be left more or less indifferent, if this is not the case one that is “abandoned” will probably have a sense of sadness , of jealousy , of anger or even hatred …
Biological approach
Zoology (hominoid behavior lovers)
Zoologically , life and man’s sexual behavior have much in common with those of other primates , and more generally with all mammals . The observation of the species closest to the homo sapiens , the dwarf chimpanzee of the Congo or bonobo ( Pan paniscus ), as well as other great apes , suggesting that love is merely an advanced form of phenomena existing among our cousins ​​in attenuated form.
Physiologically, the coitus as observed in the homo sapiens is no different from the coupling among the great apes. However, the sequence in love, the first approaches, seduction until mating, appears to have evolved in parallel with the enlargement of the cerebral cortex which was endowed our species during its recent evolution. Ideation skills, imagination, anticipation and strategy resulting have complicated the process in the extreme.
The continuing commitment, the formation of relatively stable couples is also seen in our cousins, but not to the diversity of individual behavior, duration, and the fundamental role of the imagination found in the human love life. Another factor that distinguishes humans from apes, with enormous consequences, is almost constant availability of the human female for mating, which does not exist in other mammals.
The zoologists were also interested in competitive advantage, in terms of the species that gives love as manifested in humans. There appear to be necessary to secure the couple during the period of extreme vulnerability of young, itself followed by the development phase of the intelligence of an adult, moments that, relative to their counterparts in closely related species, are extremely long.
Additionally, sexual behaviors occur in an extremely variable in animals 6 . From an evolutionary point of view, the wide variety of romantic behavior influence species diversity.
Neurology and biochemistry 
Animal studies of attachment have shown that different types of attachment (filial, romantic, brotherly, friendly, for an animal, a habitat, an environment or an object) have partly common neurobiological basis. In humans, attachment “romantic” involves essentially the same brain regions as well as certain structures involved in reward 7 . Attachment “romantic” would depend, at least in part, the sociocultural context. Indeed, it is observed that in societies where the erotic activity takes place daily and simply, romantic attachment is less pronounced and more “calm” in the passions and ecstasies of romantic love Western, “who sighs like a furnace “not ideal for a romantic 8 . Several authors have stressed the similarity between certain aspects of passionate love (altered mental status, mood of exaltation, intrusive thoughts of the loved one …) and some psychiatric disorders (eg observed in bipolar disorder and obsessive compulsive) 9 . Schematically, it seems that the involvement of the reward system , the primary factor in human sexuality 10 , 11 , induces a “dependency” to be “loved” that would lead to states of “missing” when the object is inaccessible 12 . These mental states induced by intense romantic passions Plastic Storage Containers are the source not only of remarkable achievements in the arts , the poetry and literature , but also changes individual ( suicide attempts , crimes of passion …) or social (as legend, the Trojan War was caused due to the abduction of Helen by Prince Paris, who was captivated by her extraordinary beauty).
As for maternal love, in animals, an intervention in a natural process like childbirth disrupts attachment of the female towards her young. Thus, “the sheep parturients who underwent epidural anesthesia do not show maternal behavior 13 . ”
Anthropological approach
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Love and Family
In his latest book, The First Love (Plon, 1999), children are great fans and they know very early that love means, we love to three years as we love all his life ‘ , says social psychologist Francesco Alberoni 14 .
The original link would be the first love story according to the researchers, a continuing quest to all coveted love stories. The sexual attachment present at birth neurophysiological activity that would continue to overflow in childhood on adult physically with the influx of hormones cause physiological responses in adolescence. Jean-Pol Tassin, a neurobiologist at the College de France, said that love stories are emotional elements in the brain that processes are an extension of the maternal bond. “From birth, a report to the mother based on the search for sense pleasures is created, he says. With this first report hedonistic child during its development is building what could be called an “attractor basin”: it gradually integrates its satisfactions first and will spend his life in search of other similar stimuli . » 15
The family is a place rich in romantic relationships: conjugal love, maternal love , and more generally, parental, filial, sibling.
The importance of the condition of the members of one family of these is illustrated by the emotion experienced in major events such as birth, marriage , success, an event, accident, death .
Sex
Main article: Sexual intercourse .
Love is not fundamentally different in the various human cultures, the courtship remaining basically the same in Africa , in East , in Europe or North America [ref. required] . It is rather the attitude towards the female desire, the punishment is common in many societies (see also Behavior and Language ), which changes its external form.
Behavior in love in the world
A kiss in love.
Sexual behavior varies much across the various human societies. Modes of seduction, contacts, parades and facial expressions show only very minor differences and external. Europe no longer has the monopoly of representation of massified amorous behavior, yet the two major film industries of the world, Western and Indian [ref. required] , shows the strikingly uniform character of collective representations of sexuality in different cultures, let alone knowing that these two theaters each have an area of influence that goes far beyond their own geographical areas. Indian films have long been projected in all theaters of the Middle East and Arab world, while the Western cinema has long been the conquest of Japan and the Chinese sphere of influence. [ref. required]
However some details are culturally acquired behavior. The kiss with tongue, for example, which seems natural in the West, China, in the Arab world, India (oh civilizations expert in matters of erotic refinements, the famous Kama Sutra , written by the Brahmin Vatsyayana around the beginning of the Christian era to the Arabian Nights ), was probably unknown in sub-Saharan Africa before the Europeans arrived. In My Secret Life , a licentious anonymous Victorian reports that he had “learned” this practice, which was not obvious. So it would be a cultural trait, a minor, but real.
The ethno-linguistic, linguistic anthropology and translation studies challenge the anthropological approach of analyzing the relationship between man and love in different languages ​​and cultures. Ethnolinguistics of Underhill (2012) shows for example that love is represented in metaphorical terms, and that managers and metaphorical configurations differ in English, French and Czech. But if one goes beyond the language and one enters the discourse, we can maintain the model of an individual who embodies his culture and language. It is found that individuals adopt, adapt and resist cultural frameworks they find in the language. Anthropology that focuses on multilingual studies shows that the language is that the model is maintained by the speeches and the “discursive strategies”. Love is trading language. And the speakers often resist or reject the conceptual metaphors by which love is “fusion”, the “center” or “purpose” of life. The humor is constantly innovating from Traditional paradigms. Vulgarity as (see Underhill 2012).
The homosexuality is a behavior documented from ancient times and well documented. From a standpoint psychological , love between homosexuals was not significantly different from the love heterosexual .
Internet has changed somewhat romantic relationships in the world by facilitating contacts remotely. Many couples from different continents were formed through this new medium.
Behavior and language
Paradoxically, the most natural act in the world ( reproduction ) as well as bodily functions (the defecation ) in humans are accompanied by visible social taboos in language and behavior. It exists in all human societies of taboos relating to these functions. Eg Man is the only animal [ref. required] group which meets to eat but, in some cultures, isolates himself to defecate. Similarly, the sexual activity is best done in isolation (in the love group is considered deviant ). The language itself is imbued with moral values ​​that distinguish what is “clean” what is “dirty.” Throughout history, most religions have seen as harmful to the life of the individual does want to meet all impulses without limit criteria (see libertinism , celibacy , abstinence ) or otherwise to make it the center of their philosophy in some sects (the guru wins all female group). The language distinguishes and probably in all languages ​​of the world to describe the multi-level coupling : poetry ( union ), vulgar ( kiss and a host of other words), medical-scientific ( coitus ), etc.. Some examples of euphemisms that avoid being too explicit expressions while making love , make love to be unequivocal, it is best to avoid the direct formulation (shocking) saying “sleep with someone” or even to sleep with somebody in English, began jemandem schlafen in German (although it is not just matter of sleep). The same way, sich lieben ( loving German) remains ambiguous and may designate as many feel that the carnal act. The choice of partner ultimately results in a subtle balance between the conscious attraction or cultural (common tastes, literature, music, language level, wealth, social behavior, etc..) and the unconscious attraction or natural (physical , smell, sense of security, etc..).
Arts
Any time, love, like “desire”, has inspired artists from all artistic disciplines. This is a major theme and with time; consequences of birth, life and death .
In the visual arts
Love and Psyche , by William Bouguereau (1889).
Love has always been a favorite theme in the history of painting and sculpture, by the representation of romantic situations or symbolism or allegory, involving mythological characters.
Certain themes or mythological or historical return:
• Eros (or Cupid ), god of love profane, is often depicted in scenes as the main subject, or as a secondary character to evoke the symbolic presence of love. Child or young playful and whimsical, winged and holding a bow with which he shoots arrows of gold in human hearts, which provide them with love and desire for love. The scenes are the most represented: the love of Eros to Psyche , Eros disarmed the unruly child by his mother Aphrodite , the victory of love over human works (see the famous version of Caravaggio ) or the struggle between love profane and sacred love.
• Aphrodite (or Venus ), goddess of love, mother of Eros / Cupid, often inspired painters, including the episode of his birth. It appears the world as an adult and naked out of the sea: the versions of Botticelli (see The Birth of Venus ), Cabanel , Fantin-Latour or Bouguereau among the most famous.
• The tumultuous love life of Zeus / Jupiter was also the subject of many representations: the removal of Leda , from Europe or Ganymede are among the topics most often treated.
• The great love stories of history or literature as Tristan and Isolde , Romeo and Juliet , Odysseus and Penelope and many others were treated in painting, especially in romantic periods ( Pre-Raphaelites , romance , etc.. ).
Moreover, many love scenes of daily life cash advance online of men were represented, since the court made ​​to be loved to love drama, to the languorous kiss or libertinism. An example is the picture of Jean Honore Fragonard called the lock .
In the literature
The art of poetry and the novel are, with the song , some of the favorite means of verbal expression of love. Throughout history, literature has reflected the trends of love, mythological deities in realistic love of our time.
The French has a grammatical curiosity: the word love is usually the masculine singular, but often in the feminine plural (“A love death” / “The dead loves”) 16 .
Religions
Victory of Love on Sacred Profane Love , Table of Giovanni Baglione (c. 1602).
Founding principle of the Christian religion , the Judeo-Christian societies are heavily influenced by the religious notion of love. Love is one factor that may lead an individual to have faith in his God . The theology is the specialty that deals with this topic. Love of neighbor is defined as an inner force that pushes an individual to seek peace and to share with others. The desire for love leads him to be with another or others, but to accept to receive and give, that of dialogue, to live with, understand, support, etc..
Buddhisms in Mahayana and Vajrayana (Buddhisms Vietnamese chan, Zen, Lamaism), Love is one of the four qualities of being that the practitioner must develop, one of the “Four Infinities” or “Four Without measure”: love, compassion, joy and equanimity . The Tibetan define love as a desire for the happiness of another, compassion, a desire to cessation of suffering of the other, the joy, as a sharing in his happiness, equanimity as the fact of similarly be alert at all and be all things without making a special attachment. Any practitioner of Mahayana Buddhism is like to “boddhicitta” – “the mind of enlightenment” -: want to get enlightenment or spiritual qualities for the benefit of beings, and ultimately, liberation permanent human suffering. Karuna (sansk.), is translated as “compassion” in French and “loving-kindness” in English, an activity of loving attention to each other. In Tibet , compassion is described as the attitude of the caring mother to her children face.
In Mahayana Buddhism, in general, compassion, or “loving kindness” is to jointly develop the wisdom (understanding the nature of real, objective phenomena, philosophy of selflessness, etc.). Wisdom allows to overcome the idea of ​​self, so any ego or narcissistic tendency. As such, it participates in the emergence of an “infinite compassion.” Similarly, wisdom requires great compassion to be updated: the extinction of the illusion of self, for Buddhists, requires an infinite devotion, a huge sacrifice. Also, for the Buddhists of Tibet, wisdom and compassion (or “loving kindness”) grow up to each other lead the practitioner into a “pure land” of bodhisattva – that is to say until ‘updating the human potential for love, joy, compassion and equanimity.
In early Buddhism, the teachings of the Buddha, this vision of love does not appear. The Buddha insists above all on the detachment that leads to the suppression of desire, and therefore lasting happiness (cessation of suffering, nirvana). It is only between the I and IV ° e centuries AD Mahayana Buddhism will emerge for which the action of compassion Relevant Life Policies and love for the other premium on asceticism and meditation.
For Buddhisms from developments of Mahayana and Vajrayana, love, compassion and joy are not emotions but real qualities of beings. Emotions such as anger, jealousy, fear, greed, pride, passion, can not endure, they are transient and are from attachment and desire. On the contrary, love, joy and compassion can grow infinitely and not necessarily dependent on an object or the presence of a being. The practitioner can wear it in, develop and infinitely beyond all attachment.
Its difficult start
Cupid, according to the largest number of poets, was born in March and Venus . As soon as he emerged, Jupiter , which reached to his face all the trouble it would cause, tried to force Venus to get rid of. To escape the wrath of Zeus, she hid in the woods, where he sucked the milk of beasts. As soon as he could handle the bow, he made ​​a ash, cypress employed to make arrows, and tried on animals shots he intended to men. Since he exchanged his bow and quiver against other gold ..
The love of Psyche
Cupid is charged by Venus, jealous of Psyche’s beauty, to make love with Phen375 Reviews the girl’s death the most despicable. But he himself falls in love with Psyche, injuring themselves with one of his arrows. He offers to live with him in his castle. He joined the night, asking him to pay day loan never seek to know his identity. Influenced by her sisters, but especially piqued by curiosity, Psyche takes advantage of his sleeping lover to light a lamp, he wakes up and runs away. She will manage to find it at the price of all kinds of trials during which several gods lend him a hand. Following this, they get married.
The fable of Psyche (Greek word for “soul”) has inspired Apuleius 1 , La Fontaine , the poet V. Laprade , the great painter Baron Gerard , etc..
Representations
It is most often represented under the figure of a child of seven to eight years naked or partially naked, winged, air idle, but smart: armed with a bow and a quiver full of arrows fiery sometimes a lighted torch or helmet and a spear crowned with roses, the symbol of pleasure. Sometimes, he is blind, for Love sees no faults in the beloved, sometimes it takes a rose in one hand and a dolphin on the other. Sometimes we see between Hercules and Mercury , symbol of what can love the value and eloquence. Sometimes it is placed near the Fortune having him as a blindfold. It is always painted with wings, and wings are colored in blue, purple and gold. The black wings of Love Victorious by Caravaggio (see illustration) are exceptions. It shows itself in the air, fire, on land and sea leads tanks, touch the lyre, or rises lions, panthers, and sometimes a dolphin, to indicate that there is point creature that escapes the power of love …
It is denver accident lawyer not uncommon to see him represented with his mother playing with him, teases him or press gently against his heart.
Sometimes he is depicted as an adolescent boy, with the same attributes.
Behavior
The term “conduct” means shares of a living being. It was introduced in French psychology in 1908 by Henri Pieron French equivalent of English-American Behavior . It is used especially in ethology (animal and human) or in scientific psychology . It can also be taken as the equivalent of conduct in approaching psychoanalytic .
Summary [ hide ]
1 General
Two existing Definitions
3 Issues Central to the concept
4 Definition synthetic
5 The behavior in the kingdoms of life
5.1 The behavior in plants
5.2 The behavior in protists
5.3 The behavior in animals
5.3.1 The behavior in mammals
6 A sociological study of human behavior
7 References
7.1 Notes
7.2 Bibliography
7.3 Filmography
7.4 Scientific Papers
General
The behavior of a living being and, more generally, any system is the part of its activity which manifests itself to an observer. The behavior of animals , humans and nonhumans, can be described as the set of actions and reactions ( movements , changes in physiological , verbal , etc..) of an individual in a given situation.
Animal behaviors are controlled by their endocrine and nervous system . The complexity of an animal’s behavior is closely related to the complexity of its nervous system. More the brain is complex behaviors can become more developed and thus be better adapted to the environment . Although living things without brains is perfectly suited as bacteria. The origin, function and development of behavior depend on both the interactions with the environment and the legacy phylogeny of the species . The main fundamental behaviors are behaviors food , sex , maternal , social , of aggression , the defense or leakage and inhibition of the action when the fight or flight is impossible.
The Ethology is the science which studies human behavior and describes and animals but the “behavioral psychology” puts it in the center of his studies a particular via the physiology and neurobiology studying the phenomena biological cause of these behaviors . Behavior can be described as innate or acquired , conscious or unconscious, and voluntary or involuntary, automatic or controlled, etc.. The behavior economic undergone a particular field of research called behavioral economics .
Existing definitions
Below are some definitions of the concept of “behavior”, taken from current scientific literature:
“Behavior is a set of externally observable phenomena. ”
“A way of being and acting of Animals and Men, objective manifestations of their overall activity. ” (H. Pieron in Bloch 1994 p. 153)
“The behavior is the set of reactions objectively observable that an organization will typically have a nervous system performs in response to stimulation of the environment, themselves objectively observable. ” (JB Watson in Bloch 1994 p. 153)
“Behavior is a reality apprehended as observation units, acts, including the frequency and sequences are likely to change, it translates into action the image of the situation as it is developed, with its own tools, by being that we study: the behavior expresses a form of representation and construction of a particular world ( Umwelt ). ” (A. Gallo in Bloch 1994 p. 154)
We observe that these definitions do not quite mean the same thing, probably because they were defined from a position external to the subject studied, and that the perpetrators come from different scientific fields.
Central problem of the concept
The first step in developing a definition is to identify and characterize which necessitates the creation of this definition.
A major characteristic of some organisms living is the ability of movements , which can actively interact with the environment. An important aspect of this capability is that the movement is not an unintended effect (like the movement of a branch in the wind), but the result of a specific organization of the body.
The essential factors of life that are directly related to the ability of movement are: the organization , the movement , the limits and the body . The organization is a primary and fundamental factor of life: all living structure is highly organized . The disruption causes death. The movement is another important factor of life: virtually all elements of a living structure are in perpetual motion . Stopping the movement causes death. The limit is also an important factor of life: all living beings possess external boundaries and often many internal limits . The removal of limits causes death. The body is a living structure by the existence of limits and organized movements .
Synthetic definition
The synthesis of all the items shown above can develop a definition of “behavior” based on the characteristics biological structure and function paramount, and that applies to all living organisms.
See Figure “Defining the concept of” behavior “,” cons below.
It is observed that the organized movement for the interior of the body (enzyme reactions, intracellular transport of molecules, protein pumps, endocytosis , cell migration, circulation , etc..) is an absolute vital necessity for all living beings. By cons, the organized movement to outside the body (locomotion, grasping , etc..), which corresponds to the notion of “behavior” is optional. There are mainly in the reigns protist and animal .
Based on this synthesis, the definition of “behavior”, valid for all living organisms, hcg diet plan is: all movements organized to act outside of the body .
This definition t shirt printing is more technical and more precise than the usual and general definition given in the introduction, can unambiguously identify all behaviors: the external, objective observation of a movement of an organism (or part of an agency) if there is a behavior of biological structures specifically organized to produce this movement, eg moving the eyes of mammals is not the indirect result of head movement, but results from a neural control (nuclei oculomotor III, IV and VI, etc.). eye muscles, so there is an eye behavior.
Ethology is the science of the description and the systematic study of these organized movements. But in general ethologists studying especially the more elaborate behaviors: food, sex, territorial defense, etc..
Behavior in the kingdoms of life [ change ]
Of the six kingdoms currently recognized (animal, fungal, plant, protist, archaeon, eubacterium), behavior becomes mainly in animals, and so much more limited among protists. However, some cases of movements specifically organized to act outside of the body can be observed in other kingdoms.
Behavior in plants
The plant behavior is an extremely limited. The movement of the plant depends mainly hydrodynamic mechanism of turgor . “Variations in cell turgor localized Criminal Defense Attorney Chicago many plants produce home movements of organs, such as closures of flower petals (buckwheat) or leaflets (various papilionaceous, or, if dramatic, sensitive), or movements of stamens (barberry autogamous), or the folding of the tentacles trap leaves of carnivorous plants, etc.. ” ( Dauta J. 1999).
In plants, a typical example of movements specifically organized and having a function related to the environment are the closing movements of the traps of carnivorous plants (Dionaea, sundews, etc..). A detailed explanation and an animated presentation of the structures and mechanisms involved in this behavior predator are available at www.carnibase.com .
Behavior in protists
Behavior of protists are very simple and are mostly limited to behaviors of locomotion.
The structures and biological processes that enable these organized movements are the amoeboid movements of the plasma membrane , and especially those eyelashes and flagella . “In the intestinal bacterium Escherichia coli, for example, each flagellar filament is a rigid 14-thousandths of micrometers in diameter and 10 micrometers in length, which runs at an incredible speed of 200 revolutions per second using a small rotary engine inserted in the membrane and the wall of the cell “( Bornens M. 2005).
The direction of travel is controlled by the detection of a concentration gradient of a molecule, which is detected by the receivers (phenomenon of chemotaxis ). “The movement does not occur at random, and even in the simplest cells, it appears necessary to postulate mechanisms of stimulation and inhibition of movement” ( Roze C. 1999).
Behavior in animals
We can define the behavior as the way to act or operate habitually or for a specific purpose. We can also define the behavior as a response to a stimulus. This suggests that behavior is predictable and is the consequence of something. To put it simply we can say that the behavior is unique to each living organism regardless of when there is an animal activity, we witness his behavior. One could say that the animal behavior is devoid of a dead animal.
The behavior can be studied at two key levels:
At the physiological level by studying how nerves, muscles, and senses of animals interact to produce a particular behavior.
At the individual level by studying the performance behavior in relation to the environment or the social position of the animal. Science that lists the set of behaviors or ethogram of a species is the ethology .
Containment plays a role in animal behavior. Indeed, animals alive for long periods in non-optimal conditions develop stereotypical behavior they keep repeating. Some of these stereotyped behaviors can be harmful and cause physical harm to animals.
Behavior in mammals
Behavior of mammals can be very complex. They are made ​​with structures and organs specialized, highly organized: skeleton articulated, muscles , nervous system and especially a specialist (spinal motor neurons, pyramidal and extrapyramidal motor system).
Sociological study of human behavior
The social psychology including consideration of the mutual influences between individual behavior and collective behavior.
It appears that the individual or group in a society, formal or informal, more or less loses much of its independence of thought. It then tends to go along with thinking and behavior of the group or mass, and thus behave differently than it would if it were isolated.
Individuals that receive stimuli can change their behavior.
An example of practical research on these phenomena is the behavioral economics .
There is a strong interaction between behavior and thought. While it is clear that thought influence behavior, we now know that influence the behavior of some way of thinking. Handling techniques are most effective when based on this principle, called congruence. Man needs, for its balance, to justify his own behavior and to autopersuader that his actions are lawful and consistent. The experiment thus determines thought.
The social intelligence Metrology organizes behavior, and structure analysis with the differential system of thought and the environment in which is immersed a player or a group of actors.
References
Notes
↑ The behavior is at the heart of psychology , which is to say Wolfgang Köhler : “The behavior, that is to say the reaction of living systems to environmental factors, is the only area that can be studied by scientific psychology. ”
References
Jeanne Altmann
in translation google
Altmann, J. 1974 Observational study of behavior: sampling methods. Behaviour 49, 227-267. [Reprinted in Foundations of Animal Behavior, LD Houck & LC Drickamer, eds. U Chicago Press, 1996].
Henri Laborit Inhibition of the action – Behavioral Biology and Physiopathology fender flares (2nd edition), Masson 1986
Philip Lhener
Handbook of Methods in Ethological
A review of 453 words in French by Eric Damerose
Damerose, E. (1999). The babysitter watching the child, the ethologist observes. The difference? The constant reference to a category of behavior defined a priori. Book Review of Lehner, PN (1996). Handbook of Ethological methods (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Research, 323, 90.
BLOCH Henriette et al. (Editors): Great dictionary of psychology . Larousse 1994
W. Köhler, Gestalt Psychology , 1929. French Bankruptcy translation of The psychology of form , Gallimard, Paris, 1964.